Perawat Nge-Blog

DIAGNOSIS NANDA

info download, 28 May, 2009

Askep adalah singkatan dari Asuhan Keperawatan, istilah ini sangat familier sekali di kalangan mahasiswa keperawatan dan perawat, karena dalam ilmu keperawatan setiap akan, sedang dan setelah melakukan tindakan keperawatan kepada klien tidak lepas dengan askep, yang menjadi pedoman dalam memberikan pelayan kepada pasien/klien, baik di rumah sakit, di keluarga/ komunitas maupun di rumah.

Dibawah ini adalah DIAGNOSA NANDA (2005), yang dipakai dalam acuan membuat diagnosa keperawatan yang merupakan bagian dari asuhan keperawatan / ASKEP.

Taxonomy II : Domains, Kelas dan Diagnosis

A. Domain I : Promosi Kesehatan
Kelas 1 : Kesadaran akan Kesehatan : Rekognisi dari fungsi normal dan kesehatan
Kelas 2 : Managemen kesehatan : identifikasi, controlling, performing dan aktifitas yang terintegrasi untuk
memelihara sehat dan kesehatan

Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Manajemen regimen terapi efektif
2. Manajemen regimen terapi tak efektif
3. Manajemen regimen terapi keluarga tak efektif
4. Manajemen regimen terapi komuniti tak efektif
5. Perilaku mencari bantuan kesehatan
6. Pemeliharan kesehatan tak efektif
7. kerusakan pemeliharaan rumah
8. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan Manajemen regimen terapi
9. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan nutrisi
B. Domain 2 : Nutrisi
Aktifitas untuk mengambil, asimilasi dan menggunakan nutrient untuk keseimbangan jaringan, perbaikan jaringan dan memproduksi energi

Kelas 1 : Ingesti : mengambil makanan atau nutrient kedalam tubuh
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Pola makan infant tak efektif
2. Kerusakan menelan
3. Ketidakseimbangan nutrisi : kurang dari kebutuhan tubuh
4. Ketidakseimbangan nutrisi : lebih dari kebutuhan tubuh
5. Risiko terhadap ketidakseimbangan nutrisi : lebih dari kebutuhan tubuh
Kelas 2 : Digesti : aktifitas fisik dan kimia yang mengubah bahan makanan menjadi substansi yang memungkinkan diabsorpsi dan dicerna

Kelas 3 : Absorpsi: kegiatan mengambil nutrisi menuju jaringan tubuh

Kelas 4 : Metabolisme :

Kelas 5 : Hidrasi : pengambilan dan absorpsi cairan dan elektrolit
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kurang volume cairan
2. Risiko untuk kurang volume cairan
3. Kelebihan volume cairan
4. Risiko untuk ketidakseimbangan volume cairan
5. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan keseimbangan cairan
C. Domain 3: Eliminasi
Sekresi dan ekskresi terhadap produk akhir dari tubuh

Kelas 1 : Fungsi Urinari
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kerusakan eliminasi urine
2. Retensi urine
3. Inkontinesia urine total
4. Inkontinensia urine fungsional
5. Inkontinensia urine stress
6. Inkontinensia urine tak tertahankan
7. Inkontinensia refleks urine
8. Risiko Inkontinensia urine tak tertahankan
9. Kesiapan meningkatkan eliminasi urine

Kelas 2 : Fungsi Gastrointestinal
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Inkontinensia usus
2. Diare
3. Konstipasi
4. Risiko untuk konstipasi
5. Konstipasi dirasakan
Kelas 3: Fungsi Integumen/Kulit

Kelas 4 : Fungsi Respirasi : proses pertukaran gas dan pengeluaran produk akhir metabolisme

Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kerusakan pertukaran gas

D. Domain 4 : Aktifitas dan Istirahat
Kelas 1 : Tidur/istirahat
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Gangguan pola tidur
2. Kesulitan tidur
3. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan tidur

Kelas 2 : Aktifitas/Kegiatan : pergerakan bagian dari tubuh (mobilitas), bekerja atau menunjukkan suatu kegiatan melawan tahanan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Risiko untuk Sindrom disuse
2. Kerusakan mobilitas fisik
3. Kerusakan mobilitas di tempat tidur
4. Kerusakan mobilitas di kursi roda
5. Kerusakan kemampuan berpindah
6. Kerusakan berjalan
7. Kurang aktifitas diversional (Hiburan)
8. Kelambatan penyembuhan pembedahan
9. Perilaku tak berubah

Kelas 3 : Keseimbangan Energi : keadaan dinamis antara pemasukan dan kebutuhan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Gangguan bidang energi
2. Kelemahan

Kelas 4 : Respon Kardiovaskuler/Pulmoner
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Penurunan Curah Jantung
2. Kerusakan Ventilasi Spontan
3. Pola Nafas Takefektif
4. Aktifitas intoleran
5. Rsiko terhadap aktifitas intoleran
6. Disfungsi respon penyapihan ventilator
7. Perfusi jaringan takefektif (Spesifik : renal, cerebral, kardiopulmoner, gastrointestinal, perifer)

Kelas 5 : Perawatan Diri
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kurang perawatan diri : Berpakaian/berhias
2. Kurang perawatan diri : Mandi/hygiene
3. Kurang perawatan diri : Makan
4. Kurang perawatan diri : Toileting

E. Domain 5 : Persepsi/Kognisi
Kelas 1 : Perhatian
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Pengabaian unilateral

Kelas 2 : Orientasi
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Sindrom kerusakan interpretasi lingkungan
2. Wandering

Kelas 3 : Sensasi/Persepsi
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Gangguan sensori persepsi (spesifikkan : visual, auditory, kinestetik, gustatori, taktil)

Kelas 4 : Kognisi
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kurang pengetahuan (spesifikkan)
2. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan (spesifikkan)
3. Kebingungan akut
4. Kebingungan kronik
5. Kerusakan memori
6. Gangguan proses fikir

Kelas 5 : Komunikasi
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kerusakan komunikasi verbal
2. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan komunikasi

F. Domain 6 : Persepsi – Diri : kesadaran akan diri
Kelas 1 : Konsep Diri
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Gangguan identitas diri
2. Kelemahan
3. Risiko terhadap ketidakberdayaan
4. Ketidakberdayaan
5. Risiko terhadap kesepian
6. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan konsep diri

Kelas 2 : Harga – Diri
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Harga diri rendah kronik
2. Harga diri rendah situasional
3. Risiko terhadap harga diri rendah situasional

Kelas 3 : Citra Tubuh : pencitraan diri sendiri secara mental
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Gangguan citra tubuh

G. Domain 7 : Hubungan Peran : hubungan positif dan negatif antara individu dan kelompok

Kelas 1: Peran Pemberi Asuhan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan :
1. Ketegangan pemberi asuhan
2. Risiko terhadap ketegangan pemberi asuhan
3. Kerusakan peran orang tua
4. Risiko Kerusakan peran sebagai orang tua
5. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan peran sebagai orang tua

Kelas 2 : Hubungan Keluarga
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Hambatan proses keluarga
2. Kesiapan meningkatkan proses keluarga
3. Disfungsi proses keluarga : alkoholisme
4. Risiko terhadap kerusakan kedekatan orang tua/anak

Kelas 3 : Penampilan Peran
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Menyusui efektif
2. Menyusui tak efektif
3. Menyusui terganggu
4. Penampilan peran tak efektif
5. Konflik peran orang tua
6. Kerusakan interaksi sosial

H. Domain 8 : Seksualitas
Kelas 1 : Identitas Seksual

Kelas 2 : Fungsi Seksual
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Disfungsi seksual
2. Pola seksualitas tak efektif

Kelas 3 : Reproduksi

I. Domain 9 : Koping/Toleransi Terhadap Stress
Kelas 1 : Respon Post-trauma
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Sindrom stres relokasi
2. Risiko terhadap Sindrom stres relokasi
3. Sindrom trauma perkosaan
4. Sindrom trauma perkosaan : Reaksi diam
5. Sindrom trauma perkosaan : Reaksi gabungan
6. Sindrom post-trauma
7. Risiko Sindrom post-trauma

Kelas 2 : Respon Koping
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Ketakutan
2. Kecemasan
3. Kecemasan akan kematian
4. Berduka kronik
5. Mengingkari tak efektif
6. Berduka antisipasi
7. Disfungsi berduka
8. Kerusakan penilaian
9. Koping tak efektif
10. Ketidakmampuan koping keluarga
11. Koping keluarga kompromi
12. Koping defensif
13. Koping komunitas tak efektif
14. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan koping (individual)
15. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan koping keluarga
16. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan koping komuniti
17. Risiko terhadap disfungsi berduka

Kelas 3 : Neurhobehavioural Stress : respon perilaku yang melibatkan fungsi saraf dan otak
1. Disrefleksi otonom
2. Risiko untuk Disrefleksi otonom
3. Perilaku bayi takteratur
4. Risiko untuk Perilaku bayi takteratur
5. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan Keteraturan perilaku bayi
6. Penurunan kapasitas adaptif intrakranial

J. Domain 10 : Prinsip Hidup
Kelas 1 : Nilai

Kelas 2 : Kepercayaan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan kesehatan spiritual

Kelas 3 : Nilai/Kepercayaan/Kesesuaian Tindakan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Distress spiritual
2. Risiko untuk distress spiritual
3. Konflik memutuskan (Spesifikkan)
4. Tidak terpenuhinya (Spesifikkan)
5. Risiko untuk kerusakan beragama
6. Kerusakan Beragama
7. Kesiapan untuk meningkatkan beragama

K. Domain 11 : Keamanan/Proteksi : terbebas dari bahaya, kecelakaan fisik atau kerusakan sistem imun.
Kelas 1 : Infeksi
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Risiko terhadap infeksi

Kelas 2 : Cedera Fisik
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Kerusakan membran mukosa oral
2. Risiko terhadap cedera
3. Risiko terhadap cedera posisi perioperasi
4. Risiko terjatuh
5. Risiko terhadap trauma
6. Kerusakan integritas kulit
7. Risiko terhadap kerusakan integritas kulit
8. Kerusakan integritas jaringan
9. Kerusakan pertumbuhan gigi
10. Risiko kekurangan nafas
11. Risiko aspirasi
12. Bersihan jalan nafas tak efektif
13. Risiko terhadap disfungsi neurovaskular perifer
14. Proteksi tak efektif
15. Risiko terhadap sindrom kematian bayi

Kelas 3 : Kekerasan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Risiko untuk mutilasi diri
2. Mutilasi diri
3. Risiko untuk mencederai orang lain
4. Risiko untuk mencederai diri sendiri
5. Risiko bunuh diri

Kelas 4 : Bahaya Lingkungan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Risiko keracunan

Kelas 5 : Proses Defensif
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Respon alergi getah
2. Risiko terhadap alergi getah

Kelas 6 : Thermoregulasi
Diagnosa yang berhubungan :
1. Risiko terhadap ketidakseimbangan suhu tubuh
2. Termoregulasi tak efektif
3. Hipotermi
4. Hipertermi

L. Domain 12 : Kenyamanan
Kelas 1 : Kenyamanan Fisik
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Nyeri akut
2. Nyeri kronik
3. Mual

Kelas 2 : Kenyamanan Lingkungan

Kelas 3 : Kenyamanan Sosial
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Isolasi Sosial

M. Domain 13 : Pertumbuhan/Perkembangan
Kelas 1 : Pertumbuhan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan terhambat
2. Risiko terhadap pertumbuhan tidak proporsional
3. Kegagalan pertumbuhan dewasa

Kelas 2 : Perkembangan
Diagnosa yang berhubungan
1. Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan terhambat
2. Risiko untuk perkembangan terhambat

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TYROID DISEASE

info download, 21 May, 2009

What is thyroid disease?

The thyroid gland is located in the base of the neck on both sides of the lower part of the voice box and upper part of the wind pipe. A hormone from the pituitary gland stimulates the thyroid, causing it to make thyroid hormone. A thyroid that is working as it should will maintain the right amount of hormones needed to keep the body's metabolism working at a rate that is not too fast or too slow.

Thyroid disease occurs when the thyroid gland makes too much or too little thyroid hormone. Thyroid disease is divided into two catagories (Note: These are not the only forms of thyroid disease--there is also thyroid enlargement which can accompany either of these or be associated with normal thyroid function):

* Hyperthyroidism - Overproduction of thyroid hormone
* Hypothyroidism - Underproduction of thyroid hormone

What causes Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid makes too much thryoid over a short or long period of time. Many diseases and conditions can cause this problem, including:

* Graves' disease
* Noncancerous growths of the thyroid gland or pituitary gland
* Irritation and swelling of the thyroid due to inflammation or infection (thyroiditis)

Graves' disease accounts for 85 percent of all cases of hyperthyroidism.

Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland fails to produce enough thyroid hormone. The most common cause of hypothyroidism is Hashimoto's thyroiditis, a disease of the thyroid gland where the body's immune system attacks the gland. Other causes include:

* Surgical removal of the thyroid
* Radiation to the neck, chest or brain or treatment with radioactive iodine
* Birth defects
* Inflammation of the gland due to a viral infection
* Inadequate production of the pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid
* Too much or too little iodine in the diet
* Some medications such as lithium or amiodarone

What are the symptoms of Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism symptoms include:

* Weight loss
* Increased appetite
* Nervousness
* Restlessness
* Heat intolerance
* Increased sweating
* Fatigue
* Frequent bowel movements
* Menstrual irregularities
* Enlarged thyroid
* Palpitations or irregular heartbeat

Hypothyroidism symptoms include:

(Early)

* Weakness
* Fatigue
* Cold intolerance
* Constipation
* Weight gain
* Depression
* Joint or muscle pain
* Thin, brittle fingernails
* Thin and brittle hair
* Paleness

(Late)

* Slow speech
* Dry, flaky skin
* Thickening of the skin
* Puffy face, hands, and feet
* Decreased taste and smell
* Thinning of eyebrows
* Hoarseness
* Abnormal menstrual periods

In addition to symptoms people with hypothyroidism may have increased cholesterol levels.
Should I get a Thyroid test?

"Yes," says the American Thyroid Association (ATA). It recommends thyroid testing in all adults beginning at age 35, with follow-up testing every five years. Routine thyroid testing is advised because thyroid disease is very common. If detected early, it can be treated without delay.

According to the ATA, half of the people with thyroid problems do not they have them. Women are more likely then men to have thyroid disorders. Women on thyroid hormones should check thyroid hormone levels annually and more frequently during pregnancy. Excessive use of thyroid hormone can contribute to bone loss (osteoporosis).

If you have a family history of autoimmune disease, you are also more likely to have thyroid problems. In such a case, regular checkup of the thyroid gland is highly recommended.
How is thyroid disease diagnosed?

Thyroid disease can be difficult to diagnose because symptoms are shared with other common conditions. A diagnosis is usually made by taking a medical history and a physical exam. Your doctor will check your neck and ask you to lift up your chin. You may be asked to swallow during the exam, which helps to feel the thyroid and any mass in it. Other tests your doctor may include:

1. A blood test of thyroid function
2. A radioactive thyroid scan
3. A test to measure iodine uptake by the thyroid

A simple blood test measuring thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) test can identify thyroid disorders even before symptoms begin. TSH screening is routinely performed in the United States on newborns as part of each state's newborn screening program. When thyroid disease is caught early, treatment can control the disorder even before symptoms begin.
What is the treatment of Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism?

Treatment for Hyperthyroidism depends on the cause of the condition and the severity of symptoms. It is usually treated with antithyroid medications, radioactive iodine (which destroys the thyroid and stops the excess production of hormones), or surgery to remove the thyroid.

If the thyroid must be removed with radiation or surgery, replacement thyroid hormones are taken for the rest of your life. Beta-blockers are used to treat some of the symptoms including rapid heart rate, sweating, and anxiety.

The purpose of treatment for Hypothyroidism is to supply the body with the extra thyroid hormone it needs to function properly. Levothyroxine is the most commonly used medication. The lowest dose effective in relieving symptoms and normalizing the TSH is used. Medication must be continued even when symptoms stop. Thyroid hormone levels should be watched yearly after the correct dose of medication is determined. Life-long therapy is needed.

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ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

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Alzheimer’S Disease

Apa yang dimaksud dengan Penyakit Alzheimer’s ?

Pertama kali untuk menentukan adanya dementia perlu dilakukan konfirmasi dengan test neuropsychologi . Gejalanya termasuk adanya gangguan daya ingat dan kognitif .

Apakah gejala awal Penyakit Alzheimer’s ?

Gejala awal Alzheimer’s adalah gampang lupa untuk hal-hal yang sering dilakukan dan hal-hal baru , disorientasi khususnya masalah waktu dan kesulitan dalam fungsi kognitif kompleks seperti matematika atau aktifitas organisasi .

Apakah gejala berat pada penyakit Alzheimer’s ?

Alzheimer’s berat mempunyai riwayat kehilangan daya ingat yang progresif sampai mengganggu aktifitas sehari-hari , disorientasi tempat dan orang ( misalnya usia ) , dan juga waktu . Serta mempunyai masalah dalam perawatan diri ( misalnya lupa mengganti pakaian ) . Perubahan tingkah laku seperti depresi , paranoia , atau agresif .

Apakah faktor genetik dapat menyebabkan terjadinya Alzheimer’s ?

Tidak jelas . Orang yang mempunyai riwayat keluarga Alzheimer’s mempunyai resiko terjadi Alzheimer’s dan resiko tersebut makin meningkat apabila kedua orang tua menderita Alzheimer’s .

Apakah ada ganguan lain yang dapat menyebabkan terjadinya Alzheimer’s berdasarkan survey epidemiologi ?
Orang dengan Down sindrom mempunyai resiko untuk menjadi Alzheimer’s .

Apakah faktor resiko untuk terjadinya Alzheimer’s?

Trauma kepala yang serius , penuaan , postmenopause , defisiensi estrogen , riwayat keluarga dengan genotype ApoE positif , meningkatnya homosistein serum , pengetahuan yang rendah khususnya pada perkembangan awal .

Faktor apa yang dapat mengurangi resiko Alzheimer’s ?

Estrogen Replacement Therapy lebih awal pada masa menopause , anti inflamatory drug ( termasuk nonsteroid agent ) , antioxidant ,dan penggunaan statin.

Orang-orang terkenal yang didiagnosis Alzheimer’s adalah :

1. Ronald Reagan ( Presiden AS )
2. Charlton Heston ( Aktor )
3. Rita Hayworth ( Aktris )
4. Immanuel Kant ( Filosopi )
5. Ralph Waldo Emerson ( Penulis )
6. Maurice Ravel ( Komposer )
7. John James Audubon ( Pelukis )

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INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS

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What is interstitial cystitis (IC)?

IC is a chronic bladder problem that can cause pain and other symptoms. People with IC can have an inflamed and irritated bladder. This can lead to:

* scarring and stiffening of the bladder
* less bladder capacity
* bleeding in the bladder

More than 700,000 Americans have IC. IC often shows up between the ages of 30 and 40. Women are ten times more likely to have IC than men.

Some people with IC feel only mild discomfort and some have severe pain. Severe cases of IC can keep people from doing their daily tasks, such as going to work or school.

What are the causes of IC?

No one knows what causes IC. Researchers are working to learn more about it and find treatments that will ease symptoms. Right now, there is no cure for IC.

Current research shows that a substance found in the urine of some people with IC may block the normal growth of the cells that line the inside wall of the bladder. Learning more about this substance may lead to a better understanding of the causes of IC.

It is thought that genes may play a role in some forms of IC. In a few cases, IC has affected a mother and daughter or two sisters. Still, it does not commonly run in families.

What are some symptoms and signs of IC?

Diagram of the urinary systemThe symptoms of IC vary from person to person. Also, one person can have symptoms of IC that change over time. People with IC may have an inflamed and irritated bladder. They may have mild discomfort, pressure, tenderness, or intense pain in the bladder and pelvic area. The pelvic area is between your navel (belly button) and your thigh. Symptoms also may include feeling like you need to urinate right away, often, or both.

Pain may get better or worse as the bladder fills with urine or as it empties. Women's symptoms often get worse during their periods. Pain during sex is common.
How can I tell if I have IC?

Your doctor can tell if you have IC if you have the symptoms above and by ruling out other diseases with similar symptoms.

The first step in diagnosing IC is to rule out other health problems that may be causing the symptoms. Symptoms of urinary tract infections, bladder cancer, endometriosis, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and kidney stones can be the same as those caused by IC. Tests on your urine, bladder, and urinary tract may be done. These can include:

* Urine culture. Looking at urine under a microscope can show if you have germs that show you have a urinary tract infection or an STD. Your doctor will insert a catheter, which is a thin tube to drain urine. Or you may be asked to give a urine sample using the "clean catch" method. For a clean catch, you will wash the genital area before collecting urine midstream in a sterile container.
* Cystoscopy with or without bladder distention. Your doctor may use a device called a Cystoscope to see inside the bladder and rule out cancer. Further testing may include slowly stretching the bladder, called bladder distention, by filling it with liquid. This helps the doctor get a better look inside the bladder. This test can find bladder wall inflammation; bleeding or ulcers; a thick, stiff bladder wall; and total bladder capacity. This test is often done as an outpatient surgery.
* biopsy. A biopsy is a tissue sample that your doctor looks at under a microscope. Samples of the bladder and urethra may be removed during a cystoscopy. A biopsy helps your doctor rule out bladder cancer.

Is there a cure for IC?

Doctors have not yet found a cure for IC. They cannot predict who will respond best to the different treatment options. Sometimes, symptoms may go away for no reason or after a change in diet or treatment plan. Even when symptoms do go away, they may return after days, weeks, months, or years.

How is IC treated?

There are treatments available to help ease symptoms. Although many of these options are still being studied, they have shown to help some women feel better. Some of these include:

* Bladder distention. The doctor slowly stretches the bladder by filling it with liquid. Doctors are not sure why, but this test eases pain for some patients.
* Bladder instillation (a bladder wash or bath). The bladder is filled with a liquid that is held for different periods of time before being emptied. The only drug approved to date by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in bladder instillation is dimethyl sulfoxide. Other drugs for this use are being studied.
* Oral medicines. These medicines include a prescription medicine called pentosan polysulfate sodium (Elmiron®), which can help ease symptoms in some patients. Because Elmiron has not been tested in pregnant women, it is not recommended for use during pregnancy, except in severe cases. Other oral medicines used include aspirin and ibuprofen, other stronger painkillers, antidepressants, and antihistamines.
* Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Wires send mild electric pulses to the bladder area. Scientists do not know exactly how TENS works, but it helps ease pain and urinary frequency in some people. Sacral nerve stimulation implants are being studied as another way to relieve IC symptoms.
* Self-help strategies. Bladder training, dietary changes, quitting smoking, reducing stress, and low-impact exercise have been shown to help some people.
* Surgery. If other treatments have failed and the pain is disabling, surgery may be an option. Surgery may or may not ease symptoms.

Keep in mind, these treatments do not cure IC. For some people, these treatments have helped ease their IC symptoms.
How does diet affect IC?

There is no proof of a link between diet and IC. Still, some people think alcohol, tomatoes, spices, chocolate, caffeinated and citrus drinks, and high-acid foods may irritate the bladder. Others notice that their symptoms get worse after eating or drinking products made with artificial sweeteners. If you think certain foods or drinks may be making your symptoms worse, try avoiding them. You can start eating or drinking these products again one at a time to see if any affect your symptoms.

I have IC and just found out I'm pregnant. Will it affect my baby?

Doctors do not have much information about pregnancy and IC. IC is not thought to affect fertility or the health of a fetus. Some women find that their IC symptoms get better during pregnancy. Others find their symptoms get worse.

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STRESS AND YOUR HEALTH

info download, 20 May, 2009

I have two full time jobs – I’m a customer service center manager and a mom of two young kids. I see myself as a happy person and a hard worker. But last month, the commute to work, my job, the chores around the house, and trying to spend enough time with my kids was really stressing me out. I have to get up really early in the morning to get the kids ready for school, then it takes me so long to get to work that I’m in a bad mood by the time I get there. My office is short-staffed and we had a lot of deadlines to meet so I was working overtime. My home life suffered―traffic going home doesn’t help my mood, and when I got there, I was just so tired I didn’t want to do anything! But I was faced with making dinner and doing laundry. My kids need my attention too!

I wanted to handle my stress before it got the best of me. I talked with my boss about working later hours so I don’t run into so much traffic and am in a better mood when I get there and get home. I asked my husband to pick up the kids from school, and he has offered to help more with dinner and the laundry. When he cooks, I go for a bike ride with my kids. I also started setting five minutes aside in the morning and in the afternoon at work for me to relax and take a deep breath. These small changes have made a big difference in my lif
What are some of the most common causes of stress?

Stress can arise for a variety of reasons. Stress can be brought about by a traumatic accident, death, or emergency situation. Stress can also be a side effect of a serious illness or disease.

There is also stress associated with daily life, the workplace, and family responsibilities. It’s hard to stay calm and relaxed in our hectic lives. As women, we have many roles: spouse, mother, caregiver, friend, and/or worker. With all we have going on in our lives, it seems almost impossible to find ways to de-stress. But it’s important to find those ways. Your health depends on it.

What are some early signs of stress?

Stress can take on many different forms, and can contribute to symptoms of illness. Common symptoms include headache, sleep disorders, difficulty concentrating, short-temper, upset stomach, job dissatisfaction, low morale, depression, and anxiety.

How do women tend to react to stress?

We all deal with stressful things like traffic, arguments with spouses, and job problems. Some researchers think that women handle stress in a unique way: we tend and befriend.

* Tend : women protect and care for their children
* Befriend : women seek out and receive social support

During stress, women tend to care for their children and find support from their female friends. Women’s bodies make chemicals that are believed to promote these responses. One of these chemicals is oxytocin (ahk-see-toe-sin), which has a calming effect during stress. This is the same chemical released during childbirth and found at higher levels in breastfeeding mothers, who are believed to be calmer and more social than women who don’t breastfeed. Women also have the hormone estrogen, which boosts the effects of oxytocin. Men, however, have high levels of testosterone during stress, which blocks the calming effects of oxytocin and causes hostility, withdrawal, and anger.

How does stress affectimy body and my health?

Everyone has stress. We have short-term stress, like getting lost while driving or missing the bus. Even everyday events, such as planning a meal or making time for errands, can be stressful. This kind of stress can make us feel worried or anxious.

Other times, we face long-term stress, such as racial discrimination, a life-threatening illness, or divorce. These stressful events also affect your health on many levels. Long-term stress is real and can increase your risk for some health problems, like depression.

Both short and long-term stress can have effects on your body. Research is starting to show the serious effects of stress on our bodies. Stress triggers changes in our bodies and makes us more likely to get sick. It can also make problems we already have worse. It can play a part in these problems:

* trouble sleeping
* headaches
* constipation
* diarrhea
* irritability
* lack of energy
* lack of concentration
* eating too much or not at all
* anger
* sadness

* higher risk of asthma and arthritis flare-ups

* tension
* stomach cramping
* stomach bloating
* skin problems, like hives

* depression
* anxiety
* weight gain or loss
* heart problems
* high blood pressure

* irritable bowel syndrome
* diabetes
* neck and/or back pain
* less sexual desire
* harder to get pregnant

What are some of the most stressful life events?

Any change in our lives can be stressful―even some of the happiest ones like having a baby or taking a new job. Here are some of life’s most stressful events.

* death of a spouse
* divorce
* marital separation
* spending time in jail
* death of a close family member
* personal illness or injury
* marriage
* pregnancy
* retirement

From the Holmes and Rahe Scale of Life Events (1967)

What is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be a debilitating condition that can occur after exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which grave physical harm occurred or was threatened. Traumatic events that can trigger PTSD include violent personal assaults such as rape or mugging, natural or human-caused disasters, accidents, or military combat.

Many people with PTSD repeatedly re-experience the ordeal in the form of flashback episodes, memories, nightmares, or frightening thoughts, especially when they are exposed to events or objects that remind them of the trauma. Anniversaries of the event can also trigger symptoms. People with PTSD also can have emotional numbness, sleep disturbances, depression, anxiety, irritability, or outbursts of anger. Feelings of intense guilt (called survivor guilt) are also common, particularly if others did not survive the traumatic event.

Most people who are exposed to a traumatic, stressful event have some symptoms of PTSD in the days and weeks following the event, but the symptoms generally disappear. But about 8% of men and 20% of women go on to develop PTSD, and roughly 30% of these people develop a chronic, or long-lasting, form that persists throughout their lives.

How can I help handle my stress?

Don’t let stress make you sick. As women, we tend to carry a higher burden of stress than we should. Often we aren’t even aware of our stress levels. Listen to your body, so that you know when stress is affecting your health. Here are ways to help you handle your stress.

* Relax. It’s important to unwind. Each person has her own way to relax. Some ways include deep breathing, yoga, meditation, and massage therapy. If you can’t do these things, take a few minutes to sit, listen to soothing music, or read a book.
* Make time for yourself. It’s important to care for yourself. Think of this as an order from your doctor, so you don’t feel guilty! No matter how busy you are, you can try to set aside at least 15 minutes each day in your schedule to do something for yourself, like taking a bubble bath, going for a walk, or calling a friend.
* Sleep. Sleeping is a great way to help both your body and mind. Your stress could get worse if you don’t get enough sleep. You also can’t fight off sickness as well when you sleep poorly. With enough sleep, you can tackle your problems better and lower your risk for illness. Try to get seven to nine hours of sleep every night.
* Eat right. Try to fuel up with fruits, vegetables, and proteins. Good sources of protein can be peanut butter, chicken, or tuna salad. Eat whole-grains, such as wheat breads and wheat crackers. Don’t be fooled by the jolt you get from caffeine or sugar. Your energy will wear off.
* Get moving. Believe it or not, getting physical activity not only helps relieve your tense muscles, but helps your mood too! Your body makes certain chemicals, called endorphins, before and after you work out. They relieve stress and improve your mood.
* Talk to friends. Talk to your friends to help you work through your stress. Friends are good listeners. Finding someone who will let you talk freely about your problems and feelings without judging you does a world of good. It also helps to hear a different point of view. Friends will remind you that you’re not alone.
* Get help from a professional if you need it. Talk to a therapist.A therapist can help you work through stress and find better ways to deal with problems. For more serious stress related disorders, like PTSD, therapy can be helpful. There also are medications that can help ease symptoms of depression and anxiety and help promote sleep.
* Compromise. Sometimes, it’s not always worth the stress to argue. Give in once in awhile.
* Write down your thoughts. Have you ever typed an email to a friend about your lousy day and felt better afterward? Why not grab a pen and paper and write down what’s going on in your life! Keeping a journal can be a great way to get things off your chest and work through issues. Later, you can go back and read through your journal and see how you’ve made progress!
* Help others. Helping someone else can help you. Help your neighbor, or volunteer in your community.
* Get a hobby. Find something you enjoy. Make sure to give yourself time to explore your interests.
* Set limits. When it comes to things like work and family, figure out what you can really do. There are only so many hours in the day. Set limits with yourself and others. Don’t be afraid to say NO to requests for your time and energy.
* Plan your time. Think ahead about how you’re going to spend your time. Write a to-do list. Figure out what’s most important to do.
* Don’t deal with stress in unhealthy ways. This includes drinking too much alcohol, using drugs, smoking, or overeating.

I heard deep breathing could help my stress. How do I do it?

Deep breathing is a good way to relax. Try it a couple of times every day. Here’s how to do it.

1. Lie down or sit in a chair.
2. Rest your hands on your stomach.
3. Slowly count to four and inhale through your nose. Feel your stomach rise. Hold it for a second.
4. Slowly count to four while you exhale through your mouth. To control how fast you exhale, purse your lips like you’re going to whistle. Your stomach will slowly fall.
5. Repeat five to 10 times.

Does stress cause ulcers?

Doctors used to think that ulcers were caused by stress and spicy foods. Now, we know that stress doesn’t cause ulcers―it just irritates them. Ulcers are actually caused by a bacterium (germ) called H. pylori. Researchers don’t yet know for sure how people get it. They think people might get it through food or water. It’s treated with a combination of antibiotics and other drugs.

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SINUSITIS

Ayahe Dik Berlli, 19 May, 2009

Apakah sinusitis itu?

Sinusitis adalah peradangan yang terjadi pada rongga sinus. Sinusitis banyak ditemukan pada penderita hay fever yang mana pada penderita ini terjadi pilek menahun akibat dari alergi terhadap debu dan sari bunga. Sinusitis juga dapat disebabkan oleh bahan bahan iritan seperti bahan kimia yang terdapat pada semprotan hidung serta bahan bahan kimia lainnya yang masuk melalui hidung. Jangan dilupakan kalau sinusitis juga bisa disebabkan oleh infeksi virus atau bakteri. Tulisan kali ini lebih menitikberatkan pembahasan pada sinusitis yang disebabkan oleh infeksi.

Apakah sinus itu?

Sinus atau sering pula disebut dengan sinus paranasalis adalah rongga udara yang terdapat pada bagian padat dari tulang tenggkorak di sekitar wajah, yang berfungsi untuk memperingan tulang tenggkorak. Rongga ini berjumlah empat pasang kiri dan kanan. Sinus frontalis terletak di bagian dahi, sedangkan sinus maksilaris terletak di belakang pipi. Sementara itu, sinus sphenoid dan sinus ethmoid terletak agak lebih dalam di belakang rongga mata dan di belakang sinus maksilaris. Dinding sinus terutama dibentuk oleh sel sel penghasil cairan mukus. Udara masuk ke dalam sinus melalui sebuah lubang kecil yang menghubungkan antara rongga sinus dengan rongga hidung yang disebut dengan ostia. Jika oleh karena suatu sebab lubang ini buntu maka udara tidak akan bisa keluar masuk dan cairan mukus yang diproduksi di dalam sinus tidak akan bisa dikeluarkan.

Apa yang menyebabkan sinusitis?

Sinusitis dapat terjadi bila terdapat gangguan pengaliran udara dari dan ke rongga sinus serta adanya gangguan pengeluaran cairan mukus. Adanya demam, flu, alergi dan bahan bahan iritan dapat menyebabkan terjadinya pembengkakan pada ostia sehingga lubang drainase ini menjadi buntu dan mengganggu aliran udara sinus serta pengeluaran cairan mukus. Penyebab lain dari buntunya ostia adalah tumor dan trauma. Drainase cairan mukus keluar dari rongga sinus juga bisa terhambat oleh pengentalan cairan mukus itu sendiri. Pengentalan ini terjadi akibat pemberiaan obat antihistamin, penyakit fibro kistik dan lain lain. Sel penghasil mukus memiliki rambut halus (silia) yang selalu bergerak untuk mendorong cairan mukus keluar dari rongga sinus. Asap rokok merupakan biang kerok dari rusaknya rambut halus ini sehingga pengeluaran cairan mukus menjadi terganggu. Cairan mukus yang terakumulasi di rongga sinus dalam jangka waktu yang lama merupakan tempat yang nyaman bagi hidupnya bakteri, virus dan jamur.

Apa saja tipe sinusitis?

Sinusitis dapat dibagi menjadi dua tipe besar yaitu berdasarkan lamanya penyakit (akut, subakut, khronis) dan berdasarkan jenis peradangan yang terjadi (infeksi dan non infeksi). Disebut sinusitis akut bila lamanya penyakit kurang dari 30 hari. Sinusitis subakut bila lamanya penyakit antara 1 bulan sampai 3 bulan, sedangkan sinusitis khronis bila penyakit diderita lebih dari 3 bulan. Sinusitis infeksi biasanya disebabkan oleh virus walau pada beberapa kasus ada pula yang disebabkan oleh bakteri. Sedangkan sinusitis non infeksi sebagian besar disebabkan oleh karena alergi dan iritasi bahan bahan kimia. Sinusitis subakut dan khronis sering merupakan lanjutan dari sinusitis akut yang tidak mendapatkan pengobatan adekuat.

Apa saja gejala sinusitis?

Gejala sinusitis yang paling umum adalah sakit kepala, nyeri pada daerah wajah, serta demam. Hampir 25% dari pasien sinusitis akan mengalami demam yang berhubungan dengan sinusitis yang diderita. Gejala lainnya berupa wajah pucat, perubahan warna pada ingus, hidung tersumbat, nyeri menelan, dan batuk. Beberapa pasien akan merasakan sakit kepala bertambah hebat bila kepala ditundukan ke depan. Pada sinusitis karena alergi maka penderita juga akan mengalami gejala lain yang berhubungan dengan alerginya seperti gatal pada mata, dan bersin bersin.

Bagaimana mendiagnosa sinusitis?

Sinusitis sebagian besar sudah dapat didiagnosa hanya berdasarkan pada riwayat keluhan pasien serta pemeriksaan fisik yang dilakukan dokter. Hal ini juga disebabkan karena pemeriksaan menggunakan CT Scan dan MRI yang walaupun memberikan hasil lebih akurat namun biaya yang dikeluarkan cukup mahal. Pada pemeriksaan fisik akan ditemukan adanya kemerahan dan pembengkakan pada rongga hidung, ingus yang mirip nanah, serta pembengkakan disekitar mata dan dahi. Pemeriksaan menggunakan CT Scan dan MRI baru diperlukan bila sinusitis gagal disembuhkan dengan pengobatan awal. Rhinoskopi, sebuah cara untuk melihat langsung ke rongga hidung, diperlukan guna melihat lokasi sumbatan ostia. Terkadang diperlukan penyedotan cairan sinus dengan menggunakan jarum suntik untuk dilakukan pemeriksaan kuman. Pemeriksaan ini berguna untuk menentukan jenis infeksi yang terjadi.

Bagaimana mengobati sinusitis?

Untuk sinusitis yang disebabkan oleh karena virus maka tidak diperlukan pemberian antibiotika. Obat yang biasa diberikan untuk sinusitis virus adalah penghilang rasa nyeri seperti parasetamol dan dekongestan. Curiga telah terjadi sinusitis infeksi oleh bakteri bila terdapat gejala nyeri pada wajah, ingus yang bernanah, dan gejala yang timbul lebih dari seminggu. Sinusitis infeksi bakteri umumnya diobati dengan menggunakan antibiotika. Pemilihan antibiotika berdasarkan jenis bakteri yang paling sering menyerang sinus karena untuk mendapatkan antibiotika yang benar benar pas harus menunggu hasil dari biakan kuman yang memakan waktu lama. Lima jenis bakteri yang paling sering menginfeksi sinus adalah Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Staphylococcus aureus, dan Streptococcus pyogenes. Antibiotika yang dipilih harus dapat membunuh kelima jenis kuman ini. Beberapa pilihan antiobiotika antara lain amoxicillin, cefaclor, azithromycin, dan cotrimoxazole. Jika tidak terdapat perbaikan dalam lima hari maka perlu dipertimbangkan untuk memberikan amoxicillin plus asam klavulanat. Pemberian antibiotika dianjurkan minimal 10 sampai 14 hari. Pemberian dekongestan dan mukolitik dapat membantu untuk melancarkan drainase cairan mukus. Pada kasus kasus yang khronis, dapat dipertimbangkan melakukan drainase cairan mukus dengan cara pembedahan.

Apa komplikasi dari sinusitis?

Komplikasi yang serius jarang terjadi, namun kemungkinan yang paling gawat adalah penyebaran infeksi ke otak yang dapat membahayakan kehidupan.

Kesimpulan

Sinusitis jika diobati secara dini dengan pengobatan yang tepat akan mampu sembuh dengan baik. Segeralah ke dokter jika anda menjumpai gejala gejala sinusitis.

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ENDOMETRIOSIS

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What is endometriosis?

Endometriosis is a common health problem in women. It gets its name from the word endometrium, the tissue that lines the uterus (womb). In women with this problem, tissue that looks and acts like the lining of the uterus grows outside of the uterus in other areas. These areas can be called growths, tumors, implants, lesions, or nodules.

Most endometriosis is found:

* on or under the ovaries
* behind the uterus
* on the tissues that hold the uterus in place
* on the bowels or bladder

female reproductive system

Endometriosis rarely grows in the lungs or other parts of the body. This "misplaced" tissue can cause pain, infertility (not being able to get pregnant), and very heavy periods.

What are the symptoms of endometriosis?

Pain is one of the most common symptoms of endometriosis. Usually the pain is in the abdomen, lower back, and pelvis. The amount of pain a woman feels does not depend on how much endometriosis she has. Some women have no pain, even though their disease affects large areas. Other women with endometriosis have severe pain even though they have only a few small growths. Symptoms of endometriosis include:

* Very painful menstrual cramps
* Pain with periods that gets worse over time
* Chronic pain in the lower back and pelvis
* Pain during or after sex
* Intestinal pain
* Painful bowel movements or painful urination during menstrual periods
* Heavy and/or long menstrual periods
* Spotting or bleeding between periods
* Infertility (not being able to get pregnant)
* Fatigue

Women with endometriosis may also have gastrointestinal problems such as diarrhea, constipation, or bloating, especially during their periods.

Who usually gets endometriosis?

About five million women in the United States have endometriosis. This makes it one of the most common health problems for women.

In general, women with endometriosis:

* get their monthly period
* are 27-years-old on average
* have symptoms for two to five years before finding out they have the disease

Women who have gone through menopause (when a woman stops having her period) rarely still have symptoms.

What can raise my chances of getting endometriosis?

You are more likely to develop endometriosis if you:

* began getting your period at an early age
* have heavy periods
* have periods that last more than seven days
* have a short monthly cycle (27 days or less)
* have a close relative (mother, aunt, sister) with endometriosis

How can I reduce my chances of getting endometriosis?

Some studies suggest that you may lower your chances of developing endometriosis if you:

* exercise regularly
* avoid alcohol and caffeine

Why do patches of endometriosis cause pain and health problems?

Growths of endometriosis are almost always benign or not cancerous, but still can cause many problems. To see why, it helps to understand a woman's monthly cycle. Every month, hormones cause the lining of a woman's uterus to build up with tissue and blood vessels. If a woman does not get pregnant, the uterus sheds this tissue and blood. It comes out of the body through the vagina as her menstrual period.

Patches of endometriosis also respond to a woman's monthly cycle. Each month the growths add extra tissue and blood, but there is no place for the built-up tissue and blood to exit the body. For this reason, growths tend to get bigger and the symptoms of endometriosis often get worse over time.

Tissue and blood that is shed into the body can cause inflammation, scar tissue, and pain. As the misplaced tissue grows, it can cover or grow into the ovaries and block the fallopian tubes. This can make it hard for women with endometriosis to get pregnant. The growths can also cause problems in the intestines and bladder.

Why is it important to find out if I have endometriosis?

The pain of endometriosis can interfere with your life. Studies show that women with endometriosis often skip school, work, and social events. This health problem can also get in the way of relationships with your partner, friends, children, and co-workers. Plus, endometriosis can make it hard for you to get pregnant.

Finding out that you have endometriosis is the first step in taking back your life. Many treatments can control the symptoms. Medicine can relieve your pain. And when endometriosis causes fertility problems, surgery can boost your chances of getting pregnant.

How would I know if I have endometriosis?

If you think you have this disease, talk with your obstetrician/gynecologist (OB/GYN). Your OB/GYN has special training to diagnose and treat this condition. The doctor will talk to you about your symptoms and health history. Then she or he will do a pelvic exam. Sometimes during the exam, the doctor can find signs of endometriosis.

Usually doctors need to run tests to find out if a woman has endometriosis. Sometimes doctors use imaging tests to "see" large growths of endometriosis inside the body. The two most common imaging tests are:

* ultrasound, which uses sound waves to see inside the body
* magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which uses magnets and radio waves to make a "picture" of the inside of the body

The only way to know for sure if you have endometriosis is to have a surgery called laparoscopy. In this procedure, a tiny cut is made in your abdomen. A thin tube with a light is placed inside to see growths from endometriosis. Sometimes doctors can diagnose endometriosis just by seeing the growths. Other times, they need to take a small sample of tissue, or a biopsy, and study it under a microscope.

What causes endometriosis?

No one knows for sure what causes this disease, but scientists have a number of theories.

They know that endometriosis runs in families. If your mother or sister has endometriosis, you are six times more likely to get the disease than other women. So, one theory suggests that endometriosis is caused by genes.

Another theory is that during a woman's monthly periods, some endometrial tissue backs up into the abdomen through the fallopian tubes. This transplanted tissue then grows outside the uterus. Many researchers think a faulty immune system plays a part in endometriosis. In women with the disease, the immune system fails to find and destroy endometrial tissue growing outside of the uterus. Plus, a recent study shows that immune system disorders (health problems in which the body attacks itself) are more common in women with endometriosis. More research in this area may help doctors better understand and treat endometriosis.

How is endometriosis treated?

There is no cure for endometriosis, but there are many treatments for the pain and infertility that it causes. Talk with your doctor about what option is best for you. The treatment you choose will depend on your symptoms, age, and plans for getting pregnant.

Pain Medication. For some women with mild symptoms, doctors may suggest taking over-the-counter medicines for pain. These include: ibuprofen (Advil and Motrin) or naproxen (Aleve). When these medicines don't help, doctors may advise using stronger pain relievers available by prescription.

Hormone Treatment. When pain medicine is not enough, doctors often recommend hormone medicines to treat endometriosis. Only women who do not wish to become pregnant can use these drugs. Hormone treatment is best for women with small growths who don't have bad pain.

Hormones come in many forms including pills, shots, and nasal sprays. Many hormones are used for endometriosis including:

* Birth control pills block the effects of natural hormones on endometrial growths. So, they prevent the monthly build-up and breakdown of growths. This can make endometriosis less painful. Birth control pills also can make a woman's periods lighter and less uncomfortable. Most birth control pills contain two hormones, estrogen and progestin. This type of birth control pill is called a "combination pill." Once a woman stops taking them, the ability to get pregnant returns, but so may the symptoms of endometriosis.
* Progestins or progesterone medicines work much like birth control pills and can be taken by women who can't take estrogen. When a woman stops taking progestins, she can get pregnant again. But, the symptoms of endometriosis return too.
* Gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists or GnRH agonists slow the growth of endometriosis and relieve symptoms. They work by greatly reducing the amount of estrogen in a woman's body, which stops the monthly cycle. Leuprolide (Lupron®) is a GnRH agonist often used to treat endometriosis. GnRH agonists should not be used alone for more than six months. This is because they can lead to osteoporosis. But if a woman takes estrogen along with GnRH agonists, she can use them for a longer time. When a woman stops taking this medicine, monthly periods and the ability to get pregnant return. But, usually the problems of endometriosis also return.
* Danazol is a weak male hormone. Nowadays, doctors rarely recommend this hormone for endometriosis. Danazol lowers the levels of estrogen and progesterone in a woman's body. This stops a woman's period or makes it come less often. Danazol also gives pain relief. But it often causes side effects like oily skin, weight gain, tiredness, smaller breasts, and hot flashes. Danazol does not prevent pregnancy and can harm a baby growing in the uterus. Since it can't be used with other hormones, like birth control pills, doctors recommend using condoms, diaphragms, or other "barrier" methods to prevent pregnancy.

Surgery. Surgery is usually the best choice for women with endometriosis who have a severe amount of growths, a great deal of pain, or fertility problems. There are both minor and more complex surgeries that can help. Your doctor might suggest one of the following:

* Laparoscopy can be used to diagnose and treat endometriosis. During this surgery, doctors remove growths and scar tissue or destroy them with intense heat. The goal is to treat the endometriosis without harming the healthy tissue around it. Women recover from laparoscopy much faster than from major abdominal surgery.
* Laparotomy or major abdominal surgery is a last resort treatment for severe endometriosis. In this surgery, the doctor makes a much bigger cut in the abdomen than with laparoscopy. This allows the doctor to reach and remove growths of endometriosis in the pelvis or abdomen. Recovery from this surgery can take up to two months.
* Hysterectomy should only be considered by women who do not want to become pregnant in the future. During this surgery, the doctor removes the uterus. She or he may also take out the ovaries and fallopian tubes at the same time. This is done when the endometriosis has severely damaged them.

How do I cope with a disease that has no cure?

You may feel many emotions—;sadness, fright, anger, confusion, and loneliness. It is important to get support to cope with endometriosis. Consider joining a support group to talk with other women who have endometriosis. There are support groups on the Internet and in many communities.

It is also important to learn as much as you can about the disease. Talking with friends, family, and your doctor can help.

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ANTI AGING

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Americans are living longer than ever before. Many seniors are living active, healthy, and productive lives. A woman who is 65 today can expect to live, on average, another 19 years to age 84. Many women use this extra time to volunteer, travel, and spend more time with family and friends. Taking good care of your body and mind will help you enjoy this time. This can also help you better manage health issues that are more common in older adults and the unique challenges older women face.

Key issues for older women include:

*

Health issues older women face include heart disease, cancer, stroke, and injuries from falls. Heart disease is a serious concern for older women. Many people think that heart disease mostly affects men. But actually, it's the number one killer of both men and women in the U.S. Women of any age can have heart disease. But your risk rises sharply after menopause.
*

The medical community has been studying older women's health issues in recent years. More older women are taking part in research studies such as the Women's Health Initiative. This study included over 150,000 postmenopausal women. This research has helped health care providers learn a lot about issues like menopause, osteoporosis, and heart disease. More research has also been done on the prevention of breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer.
*

Older women have higher disability rates than men of the same age. This is not because more women develop disabilities, but because women with disabilities survive longer than men. Taking good care of yourself can lower your chances of becoming disabled. That means staying active, healthy eating, controlling stress, and seeing your doctor regularly.
*

More women are in the workforce than ever before. Yet, women often spend less time in the workforce. This is because many have taken time off to raise children or care for loved ones. Also, women often make less money than men. As a result, women tend to be at higher risk of poverty than men of the same age. Planning for your future can ensure you have what you need when you retire.
*

Additional health disparities exist for older minority women. These women have many of the same health problems as older white women. Yet, they are often in poorer health and use fewer health services. They continue to suffer more from early death, disease, and disabilities. Many also face huge social and financial barriers to having life-long good health.

It is important to educate yourself about common health problems and the services available to you. This can help you overcome roadblocks you may run into. Also, leading an active and healthy lifestyle can help you reduce health risks and live life to the fullest. Read on for tips and suggestions to help you make the most of your golden years.

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MYASTHENIA GRAVIS

info download, 11 May, 2009

What is myasthenia gravis (MG)?

Myasthenia gravis (meye-uhss-THEEN-ee-uh GRAV uhss) (MG) is an autoimmune disease that weakens the muscles. The name comes from Greek and Latin words meaning "grave muscle weakness." But most cases of MG are not as "grave" as the name implies. In fact, most people with MG can expect to live normal lives.

When you have MG, your muscles weaken with activity. Muscle strength returns with rest. MG usually affects the muscles that control:

* eye and eyelid movement
* facial expression
* chewing
* talking
* swallowing
* arms and legs

The muscles that control breathing and neck movements also may be affected.

What causes MG?

With MG, normal communication between the nerve and muscle is stopped at the place where nerve endings connect with the muscles they control—the nerve-muscle junction. Normally, the nerve endings release a substance called acetylcholine (uh-SET-uhl-KOH-LEEN), which binds to the muscle tissue at the nerve-muscle junction, causing the muscle to contract (move). In someone with MG, the body's own immune system makes antibodies that block the binding of acetylcholine to the muscle.

The thymus gland, part of the immune system, is abnormal in most MG cases. Some people with MG have benign tumors of the thymus gland called thymomas. Doctors do not fully understand the relationship between the thymus gland and MG.

Who gets MG?

Estimates of the number of people affected by MG vary, ranging from 5 to 14 people per 100,000. It occurs in all ethnic groups and both sexes. It most commonly occurs in:

* young adult women (under 40)
* older men (over 60)

MG can occur at any age. Children sometimes develop it as well.

MG is not passed down through the family. You can't "catch it" from someone who has it. The disease rarely occurs in more than one member of the same family. If a woman with MG becomes pregnant, sometimes the baby gets antibodies from the mother and has MG symptoms for a few weeks or months after birth. This is called neonatal myasthenia. The symptoms can be treated and the baby does not have permanent MG.

A group of rare disorders called congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) can produce symptoms similar to MG. Unlike MG, these disorders are not autoimmune disorders but are caused by defective genes. Because of these genes, the nerve-muscle junctions in the body cannot work properly. CMS usually starts at or near birth. But it can start in childhood or even adulthood.

What are the signs and symptoms of MG?

MG can affect any muscle, but the muscles that control eye and eyelid movement, facial expression, and swallowing are most often affected. In some people, the first symptom is weakness of the eye muscles. In others, having a hard time swallowing, talking, and breathing can be the first signs. Different people have different levels of muscle weakness. Symptoms may include:

* Drooping of one or both eyelids
* Blurred or double vision
* Problems walking
* Weakness in arms, hands, fingers, legs, and neck
* Change in facial expression
* Having a hard time swallowing
* Trouble talking
* Shortness of breath (feeling like you can’t get enough air)

The onset of the disorder may be sudden. And the symptoms often are not immediately recognized as MG.

Some drugs can trigger or worsen MG symptoms.

How is MG diagnosed?

MG is hard to diagnose because weakness is a common symptom of many disorders.

Your doctor will ask you about your symptoms, take a medical history, and perform a physical exam. If your doctor thinks you may have MG, she or he may run some tests:

* Antibody blood tests. Blood tests can detect the presence of high levels of abnormal antibodies that prevent normal nerve-to-muscle transmission. Most people with MG have abnormally high levels of acetylcholine receptor antibodies. But some people with MG test negative for these antibodies. Recently, another type of antibody, called MuSK antibodies, has been found in some MG patients who test negative for acetylcholine receptor antibodies. For these patients, a blood test that detects MuSK antibodies can be a useful diagnostic tool. Just how MuSK antibodies alter or damage nerve-muscle transmission isn't clear. But patients who test positive for MuSK antibodies often have symptoms involving face muscles, swallowing, speech, and breathing. Abnormal antibodies may not be found if only eye muscles are affected by MG.
* Edrophonium test. When this drug is injected into someone with MG, his or her normally weak eye muscles will get stronger for a few minutes.
* Nerve conduction test/repetitive stimulation. With this test, a nerve linked with a specific muscle is stimulated to see if the muscle action is weakened.
* Single fiber electromyography (EMG). In this test, single muscle fibers are stimulated by electrical impulses. Muscle fibers of people with MG do not respond to repeated electrical stimulation as well as muscles that function normally. With this test, the EMG can detect problems with nerve-to-muscle transmission.
* Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This test can show if you have an abnormal thymus gland or a thymus gland tumor.

It is important for you to see a neurologist who is an expert in diagnosing MG. Diagnosis can take a long time (sometimes even years), so try to be patient with your doctor.

What is the treatment for MG?

There are several therapies that can help strengthen the muscles of someone with MG. Most people with MG have good results from treatment. In some people, MG may go into remission for a while and muscle weakness may go away completely. In rare cases, people go into remission or improve without treatment.

Treatment for MG may include:

* Medications. Drugs used include cholinesterase inhibitors, such as pyridostigmine. These drugs help improve nerve signals to muscles and increase muscle strength. Immunosuppressive drugs frequently are used to suppress the production of abnormal antibodies. They must be used with careful medical supervision because they can cause major side effects.
* Thymectomy. This is the surgical removal of the thymus gland, which is abnormal in most persons with MG. This surgery is done for people with MG who have tumors, as well as for some who don't have tumors. The surgery improves symptoms in most MG patients who receive it.

Other therapies sometimes used to treat MG when weakness is very acute include:

* Plasmapheresis (PLAZ-muh-FUR-uh-suhss) or plasma exchange. This procedure removes abnormal antibodies from the blood. This provides relief from MG symptoms in many patients for a few weeks.
* High-dose intravenous immune globulin. This treatment keeps the immune system from damaging the nerve-muscle junction for a short time. This provides relief from MG symptoms in many patients for weeks to months.

Your doctor will decide which treatment is best for you depending on the severity of the weakness, which muscles are affected, and your age and other medical problems. With treatment, many people with MG can expect to lead normal lives.

What is a myasthenic crisis?

A myasthenic crisis occurs when weakness affects the muscles that control breathing. This can create a medical emergency requiring either a respirator to help the person breathe or measures to prevent a person from taking too much air into their lungs. Weak respiratory muscles, infection, fever, or a bad reaction to medication can also trigger a crisis. The treatments described above—in particular, intravenous immune globulin and plasma exchange—can reverse the severe weakness of a myasthenic crisis.

How can I help take care of myself if I have MG?

To help ease fatigue:

* Get plenty of rest.
* Budget your energy.
* Rest your eyes or lie down briefly a few times a day.
* Work with your neurologist.
* Work with your doctor to limit medication side effects and keep your general health good.
* Eat healthy foods from all the major food groups

What research is being done?

The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, within the National Institutes of Health, conducts and supports research on MG. Research findings have led to more timely and accurate diagnoses. New and enhanced therapies have improved management of the disorder.

Despite these advances, there is still much to learn. The ultimate goal of MG research is to increase understanding of the disorder. Researchers are seeking to learn what causes the autoimmune response in MG and to better define the relationship between the thymus gland and MG.

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ANOREXIA NERVOSA

info download, 10 May, 2009

photo of a womanIt was 6 months ago when I realized my daughter, Jen, had an eating disorder. Jen has always been a picky eater. But I started to see that she moved food around her plate. And she never ate very much. She exercised all the time—even when she was sick. And she was sick a lot. She became very skinny and pale. Her hair was thinning. Jen was moody and seemed sad—I thought that's what teens act like. But once I put the signs together, I talked to Jen about anorexia. She denied she had a problem, but I knew she needed help. I took her to our doctor, and she asked me to put Jen in the hospital. It's been a tough road since then for all of us, but Jen is back home now. She is still seeing her doctors and may need help for some time. But she's doing much better.

What is anorexia nervosa?

A person with anorexia (a-neh-RECK-see-ah) nervosa, often called anorexia, has an intense fear of gaining weight. Someone with anorexia thinks about food a lot and limits the food she or he eats, even though she or he is too thin. Anorexia is more than just a problem with food. It's a way of using food or starving oneself to feel more in control of life and to ease tension, anger, and anxiety. Most people with anorexia are female. An anorexic:

* has a low body weight for her or his height
* resists keeping a normal body weight
* has an intense fear of gaining weight
* thinks she or he is fat even when very thin
* misses three (menstrual) periods in a row―for girls/women who have started having their periods

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Who becomes anorexic?

While anorexia mostly affects girls and women (90-95 percent), it can also affect boys and men. It was once thought that women of color were shielded from eating disorders by their cultures, which tend to be more accepting of different body sizes. Sadly, research shows that as African American, Latina, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian and Alaska Native women are more exposed to images of thin women, they also become more likely to develop eating disorders.
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What causes anorexia?

There is no single known cause of anorexia. But some things may play a part:

* Culture. Women in the U.S. are under constant pressure to fit a certain ideal of beauty. Seeing images of flawless, thin females everywhere makes it hard for women to feel good about their bodies. More and more, men are also feeling pressure to have a perfect body.
* Families. If you have a mother or sister with anorexia, you are more likely to develop the disorder. Parents who think looks are important, diet themselves, or criticize their children's bodies are more likely to have a child with anorexia.
* Life changes or stressful events. Traumatic events like rape as well as stressful things like starting a new job, can lead to the onset of anorexia.
* Personality traits. Someone with anorexia may not like her or himself, hate the way she or he looks, or feel hopeless. She or he often sets hard-to-reach goals for her or himself and tries to be perfect in every way.
* Biology. Genes, hormones, and chemicals in the brain may be factors in developing anorexia.

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What are signs of anorexia?

Someone with anorexia may look very thin. She or he may use extreme measures to lose weight by:

* making her or himself throw up
* taking pills to urinate or have a bowel movement
* taking diet pills
* not eating or eating very little
* exercising a lot, even in bad weather or when hurt or tired
* weighing food and counting calories
* moving food around the plate instead of eating it

Someone with anorexia may also have a distorted body image, shown by thinking she or he is fat, wearing baggy clothes, weighing her or himself many times a day, and fearing weight gain.

Anorexia can also cause someone to not act like her or himself. She or he may talk about weight and food all the time, not eat in front of others, be moody or sad, or not want to go out with friends.
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What happens to your body with anorexia?

With anorexia, your body doesn't get the energy from foods that it needs, so it slows down. Look at the picture below to find out how anorexia affects your health.

graphic on how Anorexia affects your whole body
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Can someone with anorexia get better?

Yes. Someone with anorexia can get better. A health care team of doctors, nutritionists, and therapists will help the patient get better. They will help her or him learn healthy eating patterns, cope with thoughts and feelings, and gain weight. With outpatient care, the patient receives treatment through visits with members of their health care team. Some patients may need "partial hospitalization." This means that the person goes to the hospital during the day for treatment, but lives at home. Sometimes, the patient goes to a hospital and stays there for treatment. After leaving the hospital, the patient continues to get help from her or his health care team.

Individual counseling can also help someone with anorexia. If the patient is young, counseling may involve the whole family too. Support groups may also be a part of treatment. In support groups, patients and families meet and share what they've been through.

Often, eating disorders happen along with mental health problems such as depression and anxiety. These problems are treated along with the anorexia. Treatment may include medicines that fix hormone imbalances that play a role in these disorders.
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Can women who had anorexia in the past still get pregnant?

It depends. When a woman has active anorexia, meaning she currently has anorexia, she does not get her period and usually does not ovulate. This makes it hard to get pregnant. Women who have recovered from anorexia and are at a healthy weight have a better chance of getting pregnant. If you're having a hard time getting pregnant, see your doctor.
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Can anorexia hurt a baby when the mother is pregnant?

Yes. Women who have anorexia while they are pregnant are more likely to lose the baby. If a woman with anorexia doesn't lose the baby, she is more likely to have the baby early, deliver by C-section, and have depression after the baby is born.
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What should I do if I think someone I know has anorexia?

If someone you know is showing signs of anorexia, you may be able to help.

1. Set a time to talk. Set aside a time to talk privately with your friend. Make sure you talk in a quiet place where you won't be distracted.
2. Tell your friend about your concerns. Be honest. Tell your friend about your worries about her or his not eating or over exercising. Tell your friend you are concerned and that you think these things may be a sign of a problem that needs professional help.
3. Ask your friend to talk to a professional. Your friend can talk to a counselor or doctor who knows about eating issues. Offer to help your friend find a counselor or doctor and make an appointment, and offer to go with her or him to the appointment.
4. Avoid conflicts. If your friend won't admit that she or he has a problem, don't push. Be sure to tell your friend you are always there to listen if she or he wants to talk.
5. Don't place shame, blame, or guilt on your friend. Don't say, "You just need to eat." Instead, say things like, "I'm concerned about you because you won't eat breakfast or lunch." Or, "It makes me afraid to hear you throwing up."
6. Don't give simple solutions. Don't say, "If you'd just stop, then things would be fine!"
7. Let your friend know that you will always be there no matter what
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URANARY TRACT INFECTION

info download, 07 May, 2009

"It was a normal day at work, but I was tired and felt like I had to pass urine the whole day. But when I went to the bathroom, not much came out. When I did pass urine, it burned and smelled bad—and looked cloudy too. These problems lasted a few days. So I called my doctor, and she said it sounded like a Urinary Tract Infection, or UTI. I went to her office, and she asked me to pass urine into a cup. She tested the urine and told me I had a UTI. She called my drug store and ordered pills for me. I took all of the pills she prescribed, and then the UTI and the symptoms were gone."

What is a Urinary (YOOR-uh-nair-ee) Tract Infection (UTI)?

A UTI is an infection anywhere in the urinary tract. The urinary tract makes and stores urine and removes it from the body. Parts of the urinary tract include:

* Kidneys—collect waste from blood to make urine
* Ureters (YOOR-uh-turz)—carry the urine from the kidneys to the bladder
* Bladder—stores urine until it is full
* Urethra (yoo-REE-thruh)—a short tube that carries urine from the bladder out of your body when you pass urine

Diagram of the urinary tract
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What causes Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)?

Bacteria (bak-TIHR-ee-uh), a type of germ that gets into your urinary tract, cause a UTI. This can happen in many ways:

* Wiping from back to front after a bowel movement (BM). Germs can get into your urethra, which has its opening in front of the vagina (vuh-JEYE-nuh).
* Having sexual intercourse. Germs in the vagina can be pushed into the urethra.
* Waiting too long to pass urine. When urine stays in the bladder for a long time, more germs are made, and the worse a UTI can become.
* Using a diaphragm (DEYE-uh-fram) for birth control, or spermicides (creams that kill sperm) with a diaphragm or on a condom. To read more about diaphragms, go to http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/diaphragm-cervical-cap-shield-4244.htm.
* Anything that makes it hard to completely empty your bladder, like a kidney stone.
* Having diabetes, which makes it harder for your body to fight other health problems.
* Loss of estrogen (ESS-truh-juhn) (a hormone) and changes in the vagina after menopause. Menopause is when you stop getting your period.
* Having had a catheter (KATH-uh-tur) in place. A catheter is a thin tube put through the urethra into the bladder. It’s used to drain urine during a medical test and for people who cannot pass urine on their own.

Diagram of female anatomy
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What are the signs of a Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)?

If you have an infection, you may have some or all of these signs:

* Pain or stinging when you pass urine.
* An urge to pass urine a lot, but not much comes out when you go.
* Pressure in your lower belly.
* Urine that smells bad or looks milky, cloudy, or reddish in color. If you see blood in your urine, tell a doctor right away.
* Feeling tired or shaky or having a fever.

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How does a doctor find out if I have a Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)?

To find out if you have a UTI, your doctor will need to test a clean sample of your urine. The doctor or nurse will give you a clean plastic cup and a special wipe. Wash your hands before opening the cup. When you open the cup, don’t touch the inside of the lid or inside of the cup. Put the cup in easy reach. Separate the labia, the outer lips of the vagina, with one hand. With your other hand, clean the genital area with the wipe. Wipe from front to back. Do not touch or wipe the anus. While still holding the labia open, pass a little bit of urine into the toilet. Then, catch the rest in the cup. This is called a “clean-catch” sample. Let the rest of the urine fall into the toilet.

If you are prone to UTIs, your doctor may want to take pictures of your urinary tract with an x-ray or ultrasound. These pictures can show swelling, stones, or blockage. Your doctor also may want to look inside your bladder using a cystoscope (SISS-tuh-skohp). It is a small tube that's put into the urethra to see inside of the urethra and bladder.
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How is a Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) treated?

UTIs are treated with antibiotics (an-tuh-beye-OT-iks), medicines that kill the bacteria that cause the infection. Your doctor will tell you how long you need to take the medicine. Make sure you take all of your medicine, even if you feel better! Many women feel better in one or two days.

If you don't take medicine for a UTI, the UTI can hurt other parts of your body. Also, if you're pregnant and have signs of a UTI, see your doctor right away. A UTI could cause problems in your pregnancy, such as having your baby too early or getting high blood pressure. Also, UTIs in pregnant women are more likely to travel to the kidneys.
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Will a UTI hurt my kidneys?

If treated right away, a UTI is not likely to damage your kidneys or urinary tract. But UTIs that are not treated can cause serious problems in your kidneys and the rest of your body.
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How can I keep from getting Urinary Tract Infections (UTI)?

These are steps you can take to try to prevent a UTI. But you may follow these steps and still get a UTI. If you have symptoms of a UTI, call your doctor.

* Urinate when you need to. Don't hold it. Pass urine before and after sex. After you pass urine or have a bowel movement (BM), wipe from front to back.
* Drink water every day and after sex. Try for 6 to 8 glasses a day.
* Clean the outer lips of your vagina and anus each day. The anus is the place where a bowel movement leaves your body, located between the buttocks.
* Don't use douches or feminine hygiene sprays.
* If you get a lot of UTIs and use spermicides, or creams that kill sperm, talk to your doctor about using other forms of birth control.
* Wear underpants with a cotton crotch. Don’t wear tight-fitting pants, which can trap in moisture.
* Take showers instead of tub baths.

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I get UTIs a lot. Can my doctor do something to help?

About one in five women who get UTIs will get another one. Some women get three or more UTIs a year. If you are prone to UTIs, ask your doctor about your treatment options. Your doctor may ask you to take a small dose of medicine every day to prevent infection. Or, your doctor might give you a supply of antibiotics to take after sex or at the first sign of infection. “Dipsticks” can help test for UTIs at home. They are useful for some women with repeat UTIs. Ask your doctor if you should use dipsticks at home to test for UTI. Your doctor may also want to do special tests to see what is causing repeat infections. Ask about them.
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HEPATITIS VIRAL

info download, 06 May, 2009

What is hepatitis?

Hepatitis means liver inflammation. Viral hepatitis means that a person has liver inflammation due to a virus. Viral infection of the liver makes the liver swell up and stop working well. The liver is an important organ. It helps your body with these functions:

* Digests food
* Stores energy
* Removes poisons

There are five types of viral hepatitis. The most common types in the United States are viral hepatitis A, B, and C.
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What are the signs of viral hepatitis?

Some people with viral hepatitis have no signs of the infection. For other people, these signs might occur:

* Low grade fever
* Headache
* Muscle aches
* Tiredness
* Loss of appetite
* Nausea
* Vomiting
* Diarrhea
* Dark-colored urine and pale bowel movements
* Pain in the stomach
* Skin and whites of the eyes turning yellow, also called jaundice

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What are the types of viral hepatitis?

Hepatitis A

* How you get it: Eating food or drinking water contaminated with feces, or the bowel movement (BM), from a person infected with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). It can also be caused by anal-oral contact. Some examples include:
* Eating food contaminated by a person with hepatitis A who prepares food. It can happen if the person did not wash his hands after using the bathroom and then touched the food.
* From infected household members or sexual partners
* Diaper changing tables, if not cleaned properly
* Eating raw selfish that came from sewage-contaminated water
* What it does to your body: While it can cause swelling of the liver, it doesn't normally cause permanent liver damage.
* Treatment: It usually gets better on its own. Almost everyone who gets hepatitis A gets better.
* Prevention:
* Get the hepatitis A vaccine. The vaccine is given in two doses, 6 to 18 months apart. The vaccine is recommended for the following groups:
* Travelers to areas with high rates of hepatitis A
* Men who have sex with men
* Injecting and non-injecting drug users
* Persons with clotting factor disorders, like hemophilia
* People with chronic liver disease
* Children who live in areas that had historically high rates of hepatitis A from 1987-1997
* Get an immune globulin (IG) shot for short-term protection. If you’re traveling to a place where hepatitis A is common and leaving in less than 4 weeks, an IG shot can temporarily keep you from getting the virus. An IG shot can also be given within 2 weeks after exposure to hepatitis A.
* Be careful about drinking the tap water when traveling internationally.
* Wash your hands with soap and water after using the toilet, changing a diaper, and before preparing and eating food.
* People who get hepatitis A once will not get it again.

Hepatitis B

* How you get it: Contact with a person infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This can occur through having sex with an infected person, from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth, or through sharing needles with an infected person.
* What it does to your body: The liver swells, and liver damage can occur. Most people will get rid of the virus after a few months. Some people are not able to get rid of the virus, which makes the infection chronic, or life-long. This may lead to a scarring of the liver, called cirrhosis, liver failure, and can also lead to liver cancer.
* Treatment: Acute hepatitis B usually gets better on its own. Most people develop immunity to the virus and after recovery, can’t give it to others. Someone with chronic (long-term) hepatitis B still carries the virus and can pass it to others. Chronic hepatitis B can be treated with the drugs interferon, lamivudine, or adefovir. These drugs do not work for everyone.
* Prevention:
* Get the hepatitis B vaccine. The vaccine is usually given through 3 injections over 6 months. The vaccine is recommended for the following groups:
* All girls and boys from 0 to 18 years old
* A person whose sex partner has chronic hepatitis B
* Men who have sex with men
* Someone who has been recently diagnosed with a sexually transmitted disease
* People with multiple sex partners
* Someone who shoots drugs
* Someone who lives with a person with chronic hepatitis B
* People whose jobs expose them to human blood
* If you are having sex, but not with one steady partner, use latex condoms correctly and every time you have sex. Using condoms may lower your risk of getting hepatitis B.
* Don't share anything that could have an infected person's blood on it, like toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or washcloths.
* Consider the risks if you are thinking about getting a tattoo or body piercing. You might get infected if the tools have someone else's blood on them or if the artist or piercer does not follow good health practices.
* If you are a health care or public safety worker, get vaccinated against hepatitis B, and always follow routine barrier precautions and safely handle needles and other sharp objects.
* People with hepatitis B should not donate blood, organs, or tissue.
* Do not shoot drugs. If you shoot drugs, stop and get into a treatment program. If you can't stop, never share drugs, needles, syringes, water, or "works," and get vaccinated against hepatitis A and B.
* If exposed to hepatitis B, get a hepatitis B immune globulin injection within 14 days following exposure, and begin the hepatitis B vaccine series.
* If you are pregnant, get a blood test for hepatitis B. Infants born to infected mothers should be given hepatitis B immune globulin and vaccine within 12 hours after birth.
* If you have chronic hepatitis B, make sure your babies get all of their hepatitis B shots with the last shot at 6 months of age.

Hepatitis C

* How you get it: Most often through sharing injection drugs with a person infected with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Many people don’t have symptoms and don’t know they have it.
* What it does to your body: Causes swelling of the liver and liver damage. Most people who are infected with HCV develop a chronic infection. This might lead to scarring of the liver, called cirrhosis, liver failure, and can also lead to liver cancer.
* Treatment: In some cases, it gets better on its own. The current treatment of choice is combination therapy using pegylated interferon and ribavirin.
* Prevention:
* Do not shoot drugs. If you shoot drugs, stop and get into a treatment program. If you can't stop, never share drugs, needles, syringes, water, or "works," and get vaccinated against hepatitis A and B.
* Don't share personal items like toothbrushes, razors, or nail clippers.
* Get vaccinated against hepatitis A if your liver is damaged and hepatitis B if you are in a group at increased risk of getting hepatitis B.
* Limit sexual partners and use latex condoms every time you have sex.
* Cover your cuts and open sores.

Hepatitis D

* How you get it: Contact with a person infected with the hepatitis D virus (HDV). You also must have current HBV infection to get HDV infection. HDV infection can occur by sharing needles to inject drugs, by having sex with an infected person, and from infected mother to child during childbirth.
* What it does to your body: Causes swelling of the liver and can lead to liver disease and cirrhosis.
* Treatment: It might get better on its own. Antiviral drugs might be helpful in treating chronic HDV infection.
* Prevention:
* Get hepatitis B vaccine.
* Do not shoot drugs. If you shoot drugs, stop and get into a treatment program. If you can't stop, never share drugs, needles, syringes, water, or "works," and get vaccinated against hepatitis A and B.
* Don't share personal items like toothbrushes, razors, and nail clippers with someone who has the virus.
* Use latex condoms every time you have sex.

Hepatitis E

* How you get it: A person can get infected with hepatitis E virus (HEV) by eating food or drinking water contaminated with feces from an infected person. Hepatitis E is usually a disease that occurs in persons who travel to areas that have high rates of HEV infection. This type of hepatitis is not common in the United States.
* What it does to your body: It causes swelling of the liver, but no long-term damage. Pregnant women and their babies are at increased risk of dying if infected with HEV.
* Treatment: It usually goes away on its own.
* Prevention: Be careful about drinking the tap water and eating uncooked foods when traveling internationally.

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What’s the difference between acute viral hepatitis and chronic viral hepatitis?

Acute viral hepatitis is a short-term, viral infection. Chronic viral hepatitis is a longer-lasting, and generally life-long, viral infection lasting at least six months. To find out if you have acute or chronic viral hepatitis, your doctor will do a medical evaluation that includes blood tests.
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How is viral hepatitis diagnosed?

Through blood tests and a medical evaluation. There are different blood tests, depending on the type of viral hepatitis that the doctor thinks you have.
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Is it safe to visit someone with hepatitis?

It is safe to visit someone with viral hepatitis. You cannot get hepatitis through casual contact. It is ok to shake hands with, hug, or kiss someone who is infected with any of the viral hepatitis types.
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How does a pregnant woman pass hepatitis B virus to her baby?

During the birth, blood from the mother gets inside the baby’s body. A very small number of babies get infected while the infected mother is pregnant. There is no treatment to prevent this from happening.
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Can I breastfeed my baby if I have hepatitis B?

Yes, you can. Make sure your baby gets a shot called H-BIG and a shot of hepatitis B vaccine within 12 hours of birth. Take good care of your nipple areas to prevent cracking and bleeding. If your nipples are cracking or bleeding, avoid nursing your baby on that breast until the sores heal. Until they heal, you can pump your milk to keep up your milk supply. But you should discard this pumped milk.
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If I have hepatitis B, what does my baby need so that she doesn't get the virus?

Make sure your baby gets all three hepatitis B shots plus H-BIG. If you are a mother with hepatitis B, follow this schedule for your baby:

* At birth: hepatitis B vaccine and H-BIG
* 1 to 2 months old: hepatitis B vaccine
* 6 months old: hepatitis B vaccine (not before 24 weeks, but no later than six months)

These shots will fight off the virus, and they are safe for your baby. If your baby gets those shots, there is a much lower chance your baby will get hepatitis B. A few months after your baby gets all of these shots, the doctor should do blood tests to see if your baby has the virus or if your baby is protected from HBV infection. If your baby does not get these shots, the baby has a very high chance of getting hepatitis B and developing serious liver disease.

How long do the hepatitis A and B vaccines protect you?

Only 1 series of the hepatitis A vaccine (2 shots) and hepatitis B vaccine (3 shots) is needed during a person's lifetime. Currently, there are no recommendations to give booster doses of either hepatitis A or hepatitis B vaccine.
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